In the current era, marked by surging waves of scientific and technological revolution and the rapid development of the digital economy, the digital transformation of enterprises is highly consistent with the core concept of new quality productive forces. It has opened up a brand-new path for the improvement of enterprises’ new quality productive forces and has become a key engine driving the development of these forces. Against this backdrop, how enterprises actively implement digital empowerment to effectively boost the development of their new quality productive forces, and by what specific paths they can achieve the empowerment and improvement of these forces, have become the core competitiveness determining whether enterprises can achieve high-quality development. Based on the data of Shanghai and Shenzhen A-share listed companies in China from 2011 to 2022, this paper deeply examines the impact of digital transformation on the development of enterprises’ new quality productive forces and corresponding internal mechanisms. The research results clearly show the following: First, digital transformation has a significant promoting effect on the improvement of enterprises’ new quality productive forces. Second, digital transformation can effectively enhance enterprises’ new quality productive forces through two key pathways: strengthening enterprises’ dynamic capabilities and improving the level of supply chain integration. Third, the promoting effect of digital transformation on enterprises’ new quality productive forces is more pronounced in state-owned enterprises, manufacturing enterprises, non-high-tech industry enterprises, and enterprises in the central and western regions. Moreover, in regions with a high degree of marketization, a well-developed digital economy, and strong innovation capabilities, this promoting effect is even more significant. Compared with previous literature, this study mainly makes the following marginal contributions: First, on the basis of existing research results, it further optimizes the measurement index system of enterprises’ new quality productive forces. By comprehensively considering two dimensions of essential elements and penetration elements, it adds key indicators that can accurately reflect the optimal combination of production factors, so as to promote the continuous improvement of the measurement methods of enterprises’ new quality productive forces indicators. Second, from the two unique perspectives of enterprises’ dynamic capabilities and supply chain integration, it deeply analyzes and verifies how digital transformation achieves effective empowerment of enterprises’ new quality productive forces by enhancing dynamic capabilities and improving the level of supply chain integration, and then reveals the key mechanisms played by enterprises’ dynamic capabilities and the level of supply chain integration. This will help to deeply understand the transmission path and internal logic of digital transformation in enhancing enterprises’ new quality productive forces. Third, it conducts a comprehensive heterogeneity analysis from three levels: property-right nature, industry characteristics, and regional heterogeneity, and systematically summarizes the scenario differences of digital transformation in enhancing enterprises’ new quality productive forces. This helps to comprehensively understand the empowerment effects of digital transformation on enterprises’ new quality productive forces under different scenarios and provides a valuable reference for various enterprises to accurately improve their new quality productive forces. This study further analyzes the internal relationship between digital transformation and the development of enterprises’ new quality productive forces. In terms of academic value, it expands the empowerment mechanism of digital transformation on the development of enterprises’ new quality productive forces from the perspectives of dynamic capabilities and supply chain integration. In terms of practical value, to a certain extent, it can guide enterprises to accurately locate the focus points, enhance enterprises’ dynamic capabilities and the level of supply chain integration, and contribute to the development of enterprises’ new quality productive forces.